The Abuse of Central Nervous System Stimulants and its Impact on the Youth of Eastern Nigeria
International Neuropsychiatric Disease Journal,
Page 20-33
DOI:
10.9734/indj/2021/v15i330156
Abstract
The class of drugs designated as central nervous system (CNS) stimulants includes the four social drugs that find use among some youth of Eastern Nigeria; caffeine, nicotine, cocaine and marijuana. CNS stimulants increase or enhance the activity of monoamines (such as dopamine and nor epinephrine) in the brain, which leads to increased heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration. They also have a high potential for addiction. Addiction is defined as a chronic, relapsing brain disease that is characterized by compulsive drug seeking and use, despite harmful consequences. It is considered a brain disease because these drugs change the brain structure and function. The aim of this review is to answer the following questions: What are the common types of CNS stimulants abused in Eastern Nigeria? What prompts people to start taking these drugs? Why do people become addicted to these drugs? How does CNS stimulant abuse gain foothold in Eastern Nigeria? What are the implications of this drug taking for the users and the development of youth? How does the abuse of these stimulants affect the Eastern Nigerian society? How can the use of CNS stimulants among youth of eastern Nigeria be prevented or discouraged? Is there any treatment available for the youth addicted to CNS stimulants in Eastern Nigeria?
Keywords:
- Stimulants
- caffeine
- cocaine
- marijuana and nicotine
How to Cite
Nwokike, M. O., Anusiem, C. A., Arinze, C. O., & Ogbonna, A. O. (2021). The Abuse of Central Nervous System Stimulants and its Impact on the Youth of Eastern Nigeria. International Neuropsychiatric Disease Journal, 15(3), 20-33. https://doi.org/10.9734/indj/2021/v15i330156
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Ruffle JK. Molecular neurobiology of addiction: what's all the (Δ) FosB about?. Am. J. Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2014; 40(6):428–37.
DOI:10.3109/00952990.2014.933840.
PMID 25083822
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Retrieved on 31 March 2021.
Russo EB. Cannabis and Cannabinoids: Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutic Potential. Routledge. 2013;28.
ISBN: 978-1-136-61493-4.
Mehmedic Z, Chandra S, Slade D, et al. Potency trends of Δ9-THC and other cannabinoids in confiscated cannabis preparations from 1993 to 2008. J Forensic Sci. 2010;55(5):1209-1217.
Timberlake DS. A comparison of drug use and dependence between blunt smokers and other cannabis users. Subst Use Misuse. 2009;44(3):401-415.
Seshata. Cannabis in Nigeria. Sensiseeds; 2013.
Retrieved 1 August 2018.
Alexander, Boroffka. Psychiatry in Nigeria. Brunswiker Universitätsbuchhandlung. 2006;135.
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Retrieved 30 March 2021.
Campolongo P, Trezza V, Cassano T, et al. Perinatal exposure to delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol causes enduring cognitive deficits associated with alteration of cortical gene expression and neurotransmission in rats. Addict Biol. 2007;12(3-4):485-495.
DOI:10.1111/j.1369-1600.2007.00074.
Di Forti M, Quattrone D, Freeman TP, et al. The contribution of cannabis use to variation in the incidence of psychotic disorder across Europe (EU-GEI): A multicentre case-control study. The Lancet. 2019;6(5):427-436.
DOI:10.1016/S2215-0366(19)30048-3.
Radhakrishnan R, Wilkinson ST, D’Souza DC. Gone to Pot - A Review of the Association between Cannabis and Psychosis. Front Psychiatry. 2014;5:54.
DOI:10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00054.
Blanco C, Hasin DS, Wall MM, et al. Cannabis Use and Risk of Psychiatric Disorders: Prospective Evidence From a US National Longitudinal Study. JAMA Psychiatry; 2016.
DOI:10.1001/jamapsychiatry. 2015.3229.
Di Forti M, Iyegbe C, Sallis H, et al.: Confirmation that the AKT1 (rs2494732) genotype influences the risk of psychosis in cannabis users. Biol Psychiatry. 2012;72(10):811-6.
DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.06.020.
Epub 2012 Jul 24.
Caspi A, Moffitt TE, Cannon M, et al. Moderation of the effect of adolescent-onset cannabis use on adult psychosis by a functional polymorphism in the catechol-O-methyltransferase gene: longitudinal evidence of a gene X environment interaction. Biol Psychiatry. 2005;57(10): 1117-1127.
DOI:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.01.026.
Chioma Obinna. Young adults, highest users of marijuana, others in Nigeria –POLL. Vanguard; 2013.
Spilling the beans: How much caffeine is too much. Food and Drug Administration; 2018. Available:https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/spilling-beans-how-much-caffeine-too-much. Accessed March 31, 2021.
USDA Food Data Central. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service; 2019.
Available:https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/index.html.
Accessed March 31, 2021.
Wikoff D, et al. Systematic review of the potential adverse effects of caffeine consumption in healthy adults, pregnant women, adolescents, and children. Food and Chemical Toxicology; 2017.
DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2017.04.002.
Grosso G, et al. Coffee, caffeine, and health outcomes: An umbrella review. Annual Review of Nutrition; 2019.
DOI: 10.1146/annurev-nutr-071816-064941.
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Bordeaux B. Benefits and risks of caffeine and caffeinated beverages; 2019. Available:https://www.uptodate.com/contents/search.
Accessed March 31, 2021.
Choi OH, Shamim MT, Padgett WL, Daly JW.: Caffeine and theophylline analogues: correlation of behavioural effects with activity as adenosine receptor antagonists and as phosphodiesterase inhibitors. Life Sci. 1988;43(5):387-98.
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WHO report on the global tobacco epidemic, Country profile: Nigeria; 2017.
Jesse Oliver Tweed, Stanley H. Hsia, Kabirullah Lutfy, and Theodore C. Friedman. The endocrine effects of nicotine and cigarette smoke. Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2012;23(7):334–342.
Published online 2012 May 2.
DOI: 10.1016/j.tem.2012.03.006.
Alexander Duncan, Mary P. Heyer, Masago Ishikawa et al. Habenular TCF7L2 links nicotine addiction to diabetes. Nature. 2019;574(7778):372
DOI: 10.1038/s41586-019-1653-x.
Warburton D.M. Nicotine and the smoker Rev nviro n Health. 1985;5(4):343-90.
PMID: 3916378.
Parrott AC, Winder G. Nicotine chewing gum (2 mg, 4 mg) and cigarette smoking: comparative effects upon vigilance and heart rate. Psychopharmacology. 1989; 97(2):257–261. DOI:10.1007/BF00442260.
PMID 2498936.
Parkin C, Fairweather DB, Shamsi Z, Stanley N, Hindmarch I The effects of cigarette smoking on overnight performance. Psychopharmacology. 1998; 136(2):172–178.
Emine Yalcin and Suzanne de la Monte. Tobacco nitrosamines as culprits in disease: mechanisms reviewed. J Physiol Biochem. 2016;72(1):107–120.
Published online 2016 Jan 14.
DOI: 10.1007/s13105-016-0465-9.
2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Available:https://health.gov/our-work/food-nutrition/2015-2020-dietary-guidelines/guidelines.
Accessed March. 31st, 2021.
World Health Organization. WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic, Geneva: World Health Organization; 2019.
Available:https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/326043/9789241516204-eng.pdf.
Accessed March 31st 2021
World Health Organization. WHO global report on trends in tobacco smoking 2000–2025. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2015.
Available:https://www.who.int/tobacco/publications/surveillance/reportontrendstobaccosmokin g/en/.
Accessed March 31st 2021.
The Tobacco Atlas. Nigeria; 2018.
Available: https://tobaccoatlas.org/country/nigeria/.
Accessed March 31st 2021.
Pomara C, Cassano T, D'Errico S, Bello S, Romano AD, Riezzo I, Serviddio G (2012). "Data available on the extent of cocaine use and dependence: biochemistry, pharmacologic effects and global burden of disease of cocaine abusers". Current Medicinal Chemistry. 19;(33):5647–57.
Zimmerman JL. Cocaine intoxication". Critical Care Clinics. 2012;28(4):517–26.
Connors NJ, Hoffman RS. Experimental treatments for cocaine toxicity: a difficult transition to the bedside". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 2013;347(2):251–7.
Sordo L, Indave BI, Barrio G, Degenhardt L, de la Fuente L, Bravo MJ. Cocaine use and risk of stroke: a systematic review. Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 2014;142:1–13.
Pomara C, Cassano TD, Errico S, Bello S, Romano AD, Riezzo I, Serviddio G . Data available on the extent of cocaine use and dependence: biochemistry, pharmacologic effects and global burden of disease of cocaine abusers". Current Medicinal Chemistry. 2012;19;(33):5647–57.
DOI:10.2174/092986712803988811.
PMID 22856655.
Merikangas KR, McClair VL. Epidemiology of Substance Use Disorders. Hum. Genet. 2012;131(6):779–89.
DOI: 10.1007/s00439-012-1168-0.
PMC 4408274. PMID 22543841.
Pharma Times: Rising Drug Abuse among Nigerian Youths; 2018.
Odo Samuel Chinedu (UNN/PG/MA/ 07/42554): Youths and drug abuse in Nigeria: challenge for the Nigerian churches. Department of Religion University of Nigeria, Nsukka Enugu State; 2019.
Duncan DF, Gold RS. Chapter 15: Primary Prevention of Drug Abuse. In: Drugs and the Whole Person. New York, John Wiley & Sons, Primary Prevention Refers to Efforts to Keep Drug; 1982.
2006 World Drug Report: Analysis. United Nations Publications. 2006;2090.
ISBN: 978-92-1-148214-0.
Wake-Promoting Medications. Seiji Nishino, Emmanuel Mignot, in Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine (Fifth Edition); 2011.
Drug Facts: Genetics and epigenetics of addiction; 2016.
Available:drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/genetics-epigenetics-addiction
Jamie Hartmann‐Boyce, Samantha C Chepkin, Weiyu Ye, Chris Bullen and Tim Lancaster. Nicotine replacement therapy versus control for smoking cessation. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews Review – Intervention; 2018. Available:https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD000146.pub5
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